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Standard and Formatted Input / Output in C++

The C++ standard libraries provide an extensive set of input/output capabilities which we will see in subsequent chapters. This chapter will discuss very basic and most common I/O operations required for C++ programming. C++ I/O occurs in streams, which are sequences of bytes. If bytes flow from a device like a keyboard, a disk drive, or a network connection etc. to main memory, this is called   input operation   and if bytes flow from main memory to a device like a display screen, a printer, a disk drive, or a network connection, etc., this is called   output operation . Standard Input and Output in C++ is done through the use of  streams . Streams are generic places to send or receive data. In C++, I/O is done through classes and objects defined in the header file  <iostream> .  iostream  stands for standard input-output stream. This header file contains definitions to objects like  cin ,  cout , etc. /O Library Header Files There are...
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Genetic Algorithm: Population, Fitness Function, Parent Selection, Cross over, Mutation

Genetic Algo Population Population is a subset of solutions in the current generation. It can also be defined as a set of chromosomes. There are several things to be kept in mind when dealing with GA population − The diversity of the population should be maintained otherwise it might lead to premature convergence. The population size should not be kept very large as it can cause a GA to slow down, while a smaller population might not be enough for a good mating pool. Therefore, an optimal population size needs to be decided by trial and error. The population is usually defined as a two dimensional array of –  size population, size x, chromosome size . Population Initialization There are two primary methods to initialize a population in a GA. They are − Random Initialization  − Populate the initial population with completely random solutions. Heuristic initialization  − Populate the initial population using a known heuristic for the problem. It has been observed that the e...
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Normalization in DBMS: 1NF, 2NF, 3NF and BCNF in Database

Normalization   is a process of organizing the data in database to avoid data redundancy, insertion anomaly, update anomaly & deletion anomaly.  Anomalies in DBMS There are three types of anomalies that occur when the database is not normalized. These are – Insertion, update and deletion anomaly. Let’s take an example to understand this. Example : Suppose a manufacturing company stores the employee details in a table named employee that has four attributes: emp_id for storing employee’s id, emp_name for storing employee’s name, emp_address for storing employee’s address and emp_dept for storing the department details in which the employee works. At some point of time the table looks like this: emp_id emp_name emp_address emp_dept 101 Nikhil Kangra D001 101 Nikhil Kangra D002 123 Ashish Shimla D890 166 Rahul Pathankot D900 166 Rahul Pathankot D004 The above table is not normalized.  Update anomaly : In the above table we have two rows for employee Nikhil as he belongs ...
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